JKBOSE 12th Syllabus 2025 (PDF Available): Download Subject-wise JKBOSE Class 12 Board Syllabus

Ch 1: Electric charges, Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force between two- point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.
Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines, electric dipole, electric field due to a dipole, torque on a dipole in uniform electric field.
Electric flux, statement of Gauss's theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside and outside). 

NCERT Solutions for Electric Charges and Fields

Ch 2: Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two-point charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field.
Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates,
energy stored in a capacitor (no derivation, formulae only).

NCERT Solutions for Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Ch 3: Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity, mobility and their relation with electric current; Ohm's law, V-I characteristics (linear and non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity, temperature dependence of resistance, Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel, Kirchhoff's rules, Wheatstone bridge.

NCERT Solutions for Current Electricity

Ch 4: Concept of magnetic field, Oersted's experiment. Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop. Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire. Straight
solenoid (only qualitative treatment), force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields.
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere, torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field; Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment, moving coil galvanometer- its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter.

NCERT Solutions for Moving Charges and Magnetism

Ch 5: Bar magnet, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid (qualitative treatment only), magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its axis and perpendicular to its axis (qualitative treatment only), torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field (qualitative
treatment only), magnetic field lines. Magnetic properties of materials- Para-, dia- and ferro -
magnetic substances with examples, Magnetization of materials, effect of temperature on magnetic properties.

NCERT Solutions for Magnetism and Matter

Ch 6: Electromagnetic induction; Faraday's laws, induced EMF and current; Lenz's Law, Self and mutual induction.

NCERT Solutions for Electromagnetic Induction

Ch 7: Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage; reactance and impedance; LCR series circuit (phasors only), resonance, power in AC circuits, power factor, wattless current. AC generator, Transformer.

NCERT Solutions for Alternating Current

Ch 8: Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their transverse nature (qualitative idea only). Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

NCERT Solutions for Electromagnetic Waves

Ch 9: Ray Optics: Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, refraction of light, total internal reflection and optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens maker’s formula, magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light
through a prism. Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers.

NCERT Solutions for Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Ch 10: Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen’s principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen’s principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width (No derivation final
expression only), coherent sources and sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maxima (qualitative treatment only)

NCERT Solutions for Wave Optics

Ch 11: Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation-particle nature of light. Experimental study of photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation

NCERT Solutions for Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Ch 12: Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model of hydrogen atom, Expression for radius of nth possible orbit, velocity and energy of electron in nth orbit, hydrogen line spectra (qualitative treatment only).

NCERT Solutions for Atoms 

Ch 13: Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number; nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

NCERT Solutions for Nuclei

Ch 14: Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier

NCERT Solutions for Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases in
liquids, solid solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure,
elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular
masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor. 

NCERT Solutions for Solid State

NCERT Solutions for Solutions

Redox reactions, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to
chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell, conductance in electrolytic
solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's
Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell-electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, fuel cells, corrosion.

NCERT Solutions for Electrochemistry

Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment), activation energy, Arrhenius equation. 

NCERT Solutions for Chemical Kinetics 

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,
general trends in properties of the first row transition metals – metallic character, ionization enthalpy,
oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds,
alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
 Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid
contraction and its consequences. Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids. 

NCERT Solutions for d -and f -Block Elements

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties
and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding, Werner's
theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in
qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological system).

NCERT Solutions for Coordination Compounds

Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C–X bond, physical and chemical properties, optical rotation
mechanism of substitution reactions.
 Haloarenes: Nature of C–X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in
monosubstituted compounds only).
 Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,
iodoform, freons, DDT.

NCERT Solutions for Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of dehydration,
uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.
 Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of
phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.
 Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

NCERT Solutions for Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical
and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in
aldehydes, uses.
 Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.

NCERT Solutions for Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

NCERT Solutions for Amines

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccahrides (glucose and fructose), D-L
configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.
Proteins -Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of proteins - primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.
Vitamins - Classification and functions.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.

NCERT Solutions for Biomolecules

Unit-I: Sets and Functions

Sets

Sets and their representations, Empty set, Finite and Infinite sets, Equal sets, Subsets, Subsets of a set of real numbers especially intervals (with notations). Universal set. Venn diagrams. Union and Intersection of sets. Difference of sets. Complement of a set. Properties of Complement.

NCERT Solutions for Sets

Relations & Functions

Ordered pairs. Cartesian product of sets. Number of elements in the Cartesian product of two finite sets. Cartesian product of the set of reals with itself (upto R x R x R).Definition of relation, pictorial diagrams, domain, co-domain and range of a relation. Function as a special type of relation. Pictorial representation of a function, domain, co-domain and range of a function. Real valued functions, domain and range of these functions, constant, identity, polynomial, rational, modulus, signum, exponential, logarithmic and greatest integer functions, with their graphs. Sum, difference, product and quotients of functions.

NCERT Solution for Relations & Functions

Trigonometric Functions

Positive and negative angles. Measuring angles in radians and in degrees and conversion from one measure to another. Definition of trigonometric functions with the help of unit circle. Truth of the identity sin2x + cos2x = 1, for all x. Signs of trigonometric functions. Domain and range of trigonometric functions and their graphs. Expressing sin (x±y) and cos (x±y) in terms of sinx, siny, cosx & cosy and their simple applications.

NCERT Solutions for Trigonometric Functions

Unit-II: Algebra

Need for complex numbers, especially√−1, to be motivated by inability to solve some of the 
quadratic equations. Algebraic properties of complex numbers. Argand plane.

NCERT Solutions for Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations

Linear Inequalities

Linear inequalities. Algebraic solutions of linear inequalities in one variable and their representation on the number line.

NCERT Solutions for Linear Inequalities

Fundamental principle of counting. Factorial n. (n!) Permutations and combinations, derivation of Formulae for nPr and nCr and their connections, simple applications.

NCERT Solutions for Permutations and Combinations

Historical perspective, statement and proof of the binomial theorem for positive integral indices. Pascal’s triangle, simple applications. NCERT Solutions for Binomial Theorem

Sequence and Series. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) Geometric Progression (G.P.), general term of a G.P., sum of n terms of a G.P., infinite G.P. and its sum, geometric mean (G.M.), relation between A.M. and G.M.

NCERT Solutions for Sequence and Series 

Unit-III: Coordinate Geometry

Straight Lines

Brief recall of two dimensional geometry from earlier classes. Slope of a line and angle between two lines. Various forms of equations of a line: parallel to axis, point -slope form, slope-intercept form, two-point form, intercept form, Distance of a point from a line.

NCERT Solutions for Straight Lines 

Conic Sections

Sections of a cone: circles, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, a point, a straight line and a pair of intersecting lines as a degenerated case of a conic section. Standard equations and simple properties of parabola, ellipse and hyperbola. Standard equation of a circle.

NCERT Solutions for Conic Sections

Introduction to Three-dimensional Geometry

Coordinate axes and coordinate planes in three dimensions. Coordinates of a point. Distance between two points.

NCERT Solutions for Introduction to Three-dimensional Geometry

Unit-IV: Calculus

Calculus

Derivative introduced as rate of change both as that of distance function and geometrically. Intuitive idea of limit. Limits of polynomials and rational functions trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic  functions. Definition of derivative relate it to scope of tangent of the curve, derivative of sum, difference, product and quotient of functions. Derivatives of polynomial and trigonometric functions.

NCERT Solutions for Limits and Derivatives

Unit-V: Statistics and Probability

Statistics

Measures of Dispersion: Range, Mean deviation, variance and standard deviation of ungrouped/grouped data. NCERT Solutions for Statistics 

Probability

Events; occurrence of events, ‘not’, ‘and’ and ‘or’ events, exhaustive events, mutually exclusive events, Axiomatic (set theoretic) probability, connections with other theories of earlier classes. Probability of an event, probability of ‘not’, ‘and’ and ‘or’ events.

NCERT Solutions for Probability 

Chapter-2: Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Flower structure; development of male and female gametophytes; pollination - types, agencies and
examples; out breeding devices; pollen-pistil interaction; double fertilization; post fertilization
events - development of endosperm and embryo, development of seed and formation of fruit;
special modes- apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony; Significance of seed dispersal and fruit
formation.

Chapter-3: Human Reproduction
Male and female reproductive systems; microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary; gametogenesis
-spermatogenesis and oogenesis; menstrual cycle; fertilisation, embryo development upto
blastocyst formation, implantation; pregnancy and placenta formation (elementary idea);
parturition (elementary idea); lactation (elementary idea).

Chapter-4: Reproductive Health
Need for reproductive health and prevention of Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs); birth
control - need and methods, contraception and medical termination of pregnancy (MTP);
amniocentesis; infertility and assisted reproductive technologies - IVF, ZIFT, GIFT (elementary
idea for general awareness).

Chapter-5: Principles of Inheritance and Variation
Heredity and variation: Mendelian inheritance; deviations from Mendelism – incomplete
dominance, co-dominance, multiple alleles and inheritance of blood groups, pleiotropy;
elementary idea of polygenic inheritance; chromosome theory of inheritance; chromosomes and
genes; Sex determination - in humans, birds and honey bee; linkage and crossing over; sex linked
inheritance - haemophilia, colour blindness; Mendelian disorders in humans - thalassemia;
chromosomal disorders in humans; Down's syndrome, Turner's and Klinefelter's syndromes.

Chapter-6: Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Search for genetic material and DNA as genetic material; Structure of DNA and RNA; DNA
packaging; DNA replication; Central Dogma; transcription, genetic code, translation; gene expression and regulation - lac operon; Genome, Human and rice genome projects; DNA
fingerprinting.

Chapter-7: Evolution
Origin of life; biological evolution and evidences for biological evolution (paleontology,
comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular evidences); Darwin's contribution, modern
synthetic theory of evolution; mechanism of evolution - variation (mutation and recombination)
and natural selection with examples, types of natural selection; Gene flow and genetic drift; Hardy
- Weinberg's principle; adaptive radiation; human evolution.

Chapter-8: Human Health and Diseases
Pathogens; parasites causing human diseases (malaria, dengue, chikungunya, filariasis,
ascariasis, typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, amoebiasis, ring worm) and their control; Basic
concepts of immunology - vaccines; cancer, HIV and AIDS; Adolescence - drug and alcohol
abuse.

Chapter-10: Microbes in Human Welfare
Microbes in food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation
and microbes as bio-control agents and bio-fertilizers. Antibiotics; production and
judicioususe

Chapter-11: Biotechnology - Principles and Processes
Genetic Engineering (Recombinant DNA Technology).

Chapter-12: Biotechnology and its Applications
Application of biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production,
stem cell technology, gene therapy; genetically modified organisms - Bt crops; transgenic animals;
biosafety issues, biopiracy and patents.

Chapter-13: Organisms and Populations
Population interactions - mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism; population attributes -
growth, birth rate and death rate, age distribution. (Topics excluded: Organism and its
Environment, Major Aboitic Factors, Responses to Abioitic Factors, Adaptations)

Chapter-14: Ecosystem
Ecosystems: Patterns, components; productivity and decomposition; energy flow; pyramids of
number, biomass, energy (Topics excluded: Ecological Succession and Nutrient Cycles).

Chapter-15: Biodiversity and its Conservation
Biodiversity-Concept, patterns, importance; loss of biodiversity; biodiversity conservation;
hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, Sacred Groves, biosphere reserves,
national parks, wildlife, sanctuaries and Ramsar sites.

Unit 1: Human Geography

• To define Human Geography and describe the nature and scope of Human Geography as a discipline.

Unit 2: The World Population Density Distribution and Growth

• To familiarize learners with some basic concepts of Population Geography.
• To understand the patterns of population distribution in the world and correlate the factors influencing population distribution

Unit 2: Human Development

• To understand the concept of human development introduced by Dr. Mehbub Ul Haq and Prof. Amartya Sen.

Unit 3: Primary Activities

• To understand various categories of economic activities.
• To describe Primary activities and relate the physical and social factors that affect the type of primary activities practised in different regions of the world.
• To explain main features of different types of agricultural system practised in the world.

Unit 3: Secondary Activities

• To develop understanding of secondary activities with emphasis on manufacturing industries.
• To give an overview of manufacturing processes, types, its significance and recent changes.

Unit 3: Tertiary and Quaternary Activities

• To understand different types of tertiary activity and its importance in the economy. 

Unit 3: Transport, Communication and Trade

• To acquire knowledge about various modes of transport in different continents.
• To compare and synthesize the information about major transport routes around the globe.
• To understand the development of communication networks and their impact on the modern world.

Unit 3: International Trade

• Familiarize the students with the basic concepts and principles of International trade.
• To understand the basis of International trade, Balance of trade and types of International trade.
• Gain knowledge about the concept of Dumping.
• To outline the historical perspective of globalization and Role of WTO, its functions and its implications on the world trade. 
• Examine the importance of sea ports as Gateways of International trade

India People and Economy

Unit 1: Population Distribution Density Growth and Composition

• To correlate population distribution and density with the physiography of India.
• To familiarize students with the demographic attributes of India

Unit 2: Human Settlements

• To understand how the form and size of settlement of any particular region reflects human relationship with the environment.

Unit 3: Land Resources and Agriculture

• To familiarise students with the land-use categories as maintained in the land revenue records.
• To analyse the changes in landuse pattern registered in India due to change in shares of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in GDP.

Unit 3: Water Resources

• To familiarise students about the water resources available in India and the factors that determine spatial distribution of the available water resources in the country and its utilization.

Unit 3: Mineral And Energy Resources

• To know about distribution of various minerals in the world.
• To understand and realize the importance of minerals in human life.
• To create an awareness about nature of different minerals and how to sustain them for the future.

Unit 3: Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context

• To understand the need for centralised planning (sectoral planning and regional planning) to accelerate uniform economic development over space as well the role of NITI Aayog.

Unit 4: Transport and Communication

• To acquire knowledge about various means of transport spread in different parts of India.
• To compare and correlate various modes of transport to the physical regions of India.
• To evaluate the impact of transport and communication networks on the development of our nation.

Unit 4: International Trade

• To familiarise students about the changes that have taken place in India’s international trade in terms of volume, composition and direction. 

Unit 5: Geographical Perspective on selected issues and problems

• To explain the causes and consequences of different types of pollution in India and suggest the measures to control it.

• Russia
• Balkan States
• Central Asian States

a) Military and Democracy in Pakistan and Bangladesh
b) Monarchy and Democracy in Nepal
c) Ethnic Conflict and Democracy in Sri Lanka
d) India-Pakistan Conflicts
e) India and its Neighbours
f) Peace and Cooperation

a) Meaning and importance of International Organisations
b) Evolution of the UN
c) Structure and function of International Organisations
d) Principal Organs of UN
e) Reform of the UN after Cold War
f) Reform of Structures, Processes and Jurisdiction of the UN
g) India and the UN Reforms

h) Key Agencies: IMF, World Bank, WTO, ILO, IAEA.
i) NGO: Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch.
j) Implications and Future of International Organizations

a) Environmental Concerns

b) Global Commons
c) Common but differentiated Responsibilities
d) India’s Stand on Environment Issues
e) Environmental Movements

f) Resource Geopolitics
g) Rights of Indigenous peoples

• Three Challenges.

• Consequences of Partition.

• The problem
• Government’s approach
• Hyderabad
• Manipur

a) Challenge of building democracy.

b) Congress dominance in the first three general elect ions.

• Nature of Congress dominance
• Congress as social and ideological coalition.
• Tolerance and
  management of Factions
  c) Emergence of opposition parties.

•  Ideas of Development.
•  Planning
•  Planning Commission

•  The First Five Year Plan.
•  Rapid Industrialisation.

•  Nehru’s role
•  Distance from two camps.
•  Afro Asian Unity

•  The Chinese Invasion1962
•  War and Peace with Pakistan
•  Bangladesh War 1971

a) Challenge of Political Succession

• From Nehru to Shastri
• From Shastri to Indira Gandhi

b) Fourth General Election
1967

• Context of the Election
• Non Congressism
• Electoral Verdict
• Coalitions
• Defections

c) Split in the Congress

• Indira vs the Syndicate
• Presidential Election 1969

d) The 1971 Election and Restoration of Congress

• The outcome and after Restoration?

a) Background to Emergency.
 Economic Context.
 Gujarat and Bihar Movements
 Conflict with Judiciary
b) Declaration of Emergency Crisis and response
 Consequences
c) Lessons of the Emergency.
d)Politics after Emergency.
 Lok Sabha Elections 1977
 Janata Government
 Legacy

a) Region and the Nation
 Indian Approach
 Areas of Tension
 Jammu and Kashmir
 Roots of the Problem
 External and Internal disputes
 Politics since 1948
 Insurgency and After

 2022 and Beyond
b) Punjab
 Political Context
 Cycle of Violence
 Road to Peace
c) The Northeast
 Demand for autonomy
 Secessionist Movements
 Movements against outsiders
 Assam and National Integration

a) Context of 1990s

b) Era of Coalition
 Alliance Politics
c) Political rise of the Backward Classes
 Mandal Implemented
 Political Fallouts
d) Communalism, Secularism and Democracy.
 Ayodhya Dispute
 Demolition and after
e) Emergence of New Consensus
f) Lok Sabha Elections 2004
g) Growing Consensus

Unit I: Computational Thinking and Programming – 2

Unit II: II Computer Networks 

● Evolution of networking: introduction to computer networks, evolution of networking (ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET)
● Data communication terminologies: the concept of communication, components of data communication (sender,receiver, message, communication media, protocols), measuring capacity of communication media (bandwidth, data transfer rate), IP address, switching techniques (Circuit switching, Packet switching)
● Transmission media: Wired communication media (Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, Fiber-optic cable), Wireless media (Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared waves)
● Network devices (Modem, Ethernet card, RJ45, Repeater, Hub, Switch, Router, Gateway, WIFI card)
● Network topologies and Network types: types of networks (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN), networking topologies (Bus, Star, Tree)
● Network protocol: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
● Introduction to web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup Language (XML), domain names, URL, website, web browser, web servers, web hosting 

Unit III: Database Management

● Database concepts: introduction to database concepts and its need
● Relational data model: relation, attribute, tuple, domain, degree, cardinality, keys (candidate key, primary key, alternate key, foreign key)
● Structured Query Language: introduction, Data Definition Language and Data Manipulation Language, data type (char(n), varchar(n), int, float, date), constraints (not null, unique, primary key), create database, use database, show databases, drop database, show tables, create table, describe table, alter table (add and remove an attribute, add and remove primary key), drop table, insert, delete, select, operators (mathematical, relational and logical), aliasing, distinct clause, where clause, in, between, order by, meaning of null, is null, is not null, like, update command, delete command, aggregate functions (max, min, avg, sum, count), group by, having clause, joins: cartesian product on two tables, equi-join and natural join
● Interface of python with an SQL database: connecting SQL with Python, performing insert, update, delete queries using cursor, display data by using connect(), cursor(), execute(), commit(), fetchone(), fetchall(), rowcount, creating database connectivity applications, use of %s format specifier or format() to perform queries